Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
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			'title' => 'Climate Responsive Architecture in South China',
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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'title' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao',
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
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Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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	),
	(int) 2 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '79',
			'rght' => '92',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 3 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '39',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '93',
			'rght' => '96',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
		),
		'children' => array(
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	(int) 4 => array(
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			'lft' => '97',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Blog',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
			'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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	),
	(int) 5 => array(
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			'usergroup_id' => '4',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Logbook',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:28:10',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
		'children' => array()
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$thesesThreadId = (int) 28
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		'parent_id' => '7',
		'lft' => '65',
		'rght' => '78',
		'hidden' => '0',
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		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '0',
		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
		'title' => 'Archive',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:28',
		'modified' => '2010-09-29 15:34:27'
	),
	'children' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
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			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 1 => array(
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			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
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$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_27"><div>Archive</div></div>'
$act = null
$aclass = 'nav-page'
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
                    $div .= '</div></div>';
                    
                    $act = in_array($pageThread['Thread']['id'], $parent_thread_ids);
$viewFile = '/home/httpd/vhosts/k3000.ch/transculturalmodernism.org/app/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp'
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			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Concepts',
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			'created' => '2010-04-13 19:15:48',
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		'Location' => array(
			'id' => null,
			'parent_id' => null,
			'lft' => null,
			'rght' => null,
			'location_type_id' => null,
			'title' => null,
			'abstract' => null,
			'user_id' => null,
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			'id' => null,
			'location_id' => null,
			'longitude' => null,
			'latitude' => null,
			'altitude' => null,
			'title' => null,
			'note' => null,
			'user_id' => null,
			'created' => null,
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		'AssetsChartSpot' => array(
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		'LinkedThread' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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		'Keyword' => array(
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		'Article' => array(
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			'usergroup_id' => '3',
			'thread_type_id' => '4',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Website',
			'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
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)
$asset = array(
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		'assetfile_id' => '983',
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			'title' => 'Climate Responsive Architecture in South China',
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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'title' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao',
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

',
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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'title' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao',
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'title' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao',
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 2 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '28',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '79',
			'rght' => '92',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 3 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '39',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '93',
			'rght' => '96',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 4 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '31',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '97',
			'rght' => '112',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Blog',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
			'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 5 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '32',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '113',
			'rght' => '114',
			'hidden' => '1',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '4',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Logbook',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:28:10',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
		'children' => array()
	)
)
$mapThreadId = (int) 39
$thesesThreadId = (int) 28
$pageThread = array(
	'Thread' => array(
		'id' => '39',
		'parent_id' => '7',
		'lft' => '93',
		'rght' => '96',
		'hidden' => '0',
		'user_id' => '1',
		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '0',
		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
		'title' => 'Charts',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
		'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
	),
	'children' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		)
	)
)
$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_39"><div>Charts</div></div>'
$act = null
$aclass = 'nav-page'
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
                    $div .= '</div></div>';
                    
                    $act = in_array($pageThread['Thread']['id'], $parent_thread_ids);
$viewFile = '/home/httpd/vhosts/k3000.ch/transculturalmodernism.org/app/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp'
$dataForView = array(
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		(int) 0 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	'asset' => array(
		'Asset' => array(
			'id' => '981',
			'assetfile_id' => '983',
			'thread_id' => '20',
			'user_id' => '6',
			'title' => 'Climate Calculations',
			'abstract' => 'Calculations and diagrams for optimized ventilation in the subtropical zone through ton-roofs as proposed by Hsia Changshi in 1958 in Jianzhu Xuebao (Architecture Magazine).',
			'captions' => '',
			'location_id' => '0',
			'locationtag_id' => '0',
			'created' => '2012-01-13 09:12:16',
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			'asset_id' => '981',
			'user_id' => '6',
			'title' => '/files/christina/2012-01-13/004/IMG_3893_Kopie.jpg',
			'copyright' => '',
			'note' => '',
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			'location_id' => '0',
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			'first_name' => 'Christina',
			'last_name' => 'Linortner',
			'super' => '1',
			'email' => '[email protected]',
			'username' => 'christina',
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			'expire' => '2013-03-06 13:48:53',
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		'Thread' => array(
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			'parent_id' => '12',
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			'rght' => '21',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Concepts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-13 19:15:48',
			'modified' => '2010-10-31 17:36:53'
		),
		'Location' => array(
			'id' => null,
			'parent_id' => null,
			'lft' => null,
			'rght' => null,
			'location_type_id' => null,
			'title' => null,
			'abstract' => null,
			'user_id' => null,
			'usergroup_id' => null,
			'created' => null,
			'modified' => null
		),
		'Locationtag' => array(
			'id' => null,
			'location_id' => null,
			'longitude' => null,
			'latitude' => null,
			'altitude' => null,
			'title' => null,
			'note' => null,
			'user_id' => null,
			'created' => null,
			'modified' => null
		),
		'AssetsChartSpot' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'LinkedThread' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'Keyword' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'Reference' => array(),
		'Article' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'ChartSpot' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	)
)
$website_threads = array(
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		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '7',
			'parent_id' => '1',
			'lft' => '54',
			'rght' => '115',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '3',
			'thread_type_id' => '4',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Website',
			'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
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			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	)
)
$asset = array(
	'Asset' => array(
		'id' => '981',
		'assetfile_id' => '983',
		'thread_id' => '20',
		'user_id' => '6',
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		'captions' => '',
		'location_id' => '0',
		'locationtag_id' => '0',
		'created' => '2012-01-13 09:12:16',
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	'Assetfile' => array(
		'id' => '983',
		'asset_id' => '981',
		'user_id' => '6',
		'title' => '/files/christina/2012-01-13/004/IMG_3893_Kopie.jpg',
		'copyright' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'assetfile_type_id' => '2',
		'thumb_path' => '/files/christina/2012-01-13/004/IMG_3893_Kopie.jpg_96x96.jpg',
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		'media_path' => '',
		'media_width' => '0',
		'media_height' => '0',
		'media_duration_s' => '0',
		'media_bytes' => '0',
		'text_extract' => '',
		'location_id' => '0',
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	),
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		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '0',
		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
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		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-04-13 19:15:48',
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	'Location' => array(
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		'parent_id' => null,
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	),
	'Locationtag' => array(
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	),
	'AssetsChartSpot' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
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			'chart_spot_id' => '20',
			'column_nr' => '5',
			'row_nr' => '6',
			'view_corner' => '4',
			'view_width' => '4',
			'view_height' => '3',
			'auto_open' => '1',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 16:55:48',
			'created' => '0000-00-00 00:00:00'
		)
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	'LinkedThread' => array(
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				[maximum depth reached]
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			'title' => 'Climate Responsive Architecture in South China',
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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'title' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao',
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

',
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			'title' => 'Hsia Changshi ',
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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'text' => 'In the 1950s in Guangdong province, South China, a specific regional architectural modernism evolved, promoted by a group of architects affiliated with the South China University of Technology. One of the main protagonists was the architect Hsia Changshi who – like many of his fellow architects in that generation – had studied abroad and adapted ideas he had encountered during his education to specific local conditions he found in South China. 
Guangzhou, at that time the only port city in China that remained open for trade with the West due to its geographical proximity to Hong Kong, also played a particular role in building culture. While the official line for architecture and construction was geared to the Soviet model under the slogan “Learning from the Soviet Union” and simultaneously a Neo-Sino-Classicism, a climate-adaptive approach in South China allowed for the otherwise discredited modernist architectural language using horizontal lines in its design that was associated with the Western capitalist class enemy.

Hsia’s architecture was based on three cornerstones, a rigidly rational examination of climatic conditions reminiscent of tropicalist concepts concerning shading technology, natural ventilation and heat insulation; the study of vernacular Lingnan architecture in respect to climate conformity and by social means; and a cost effectiveness through the use of low-priced and local material. 
In 1958 Hsia Changshi published an article in the Chinese Architectural Magazine “Jianzhu Xuebao” with the title “Problems on lowering Temperature of Building in the Subtropical Zone.” By thoroughly estimating the geographically relevant incidence of sunlight, he argues for what becomes the predominant feature of his buildings, an extensive shading structure resembling Le Corbusier’s brise soleil. Replacing the traditional mobile sunscreens, Hsia developed a system of long horizontal shading boards. They became the greatest distinction in the design of his buildings, such as Zhongshan medical building with various depths depending on the number of the floor and the orientation of the building. South facing windows also had vertical boards. At the same time, he analyzed systems for natural ventilation by developing curved clay roofs that were prefabricated on site using local clay bricks. 

Architectural practice in Guangzhou among Hsia Changshi and his colleagues was oriented around building, teaching, and research. A research center for vernacular architecture with a special focus on Lingnan gardens was established. Hsia and his colleague Mo Bozhi conducted site surveys with their students; archival photographs show students measuring vernacular architecture.  Hsia Changshi developed a special interest in Lingnan gardens “starting a general survey on the garden in the middle Canton area in 1954.  Later, Mr. Mo Bozhi joined in his research.  
In the autumn of 1961, the Architecture Department of South China Institute of Technology cooperated with TPB of Guangzhou to launch a systematic survey directed by Mr. Hsia and Mr. Mo. Until 1963, they had already finished the study of around forty gardens in Guangzhou, Chaoshan, Quanzhou and Fuzhou.” (Peng, 2007:38)  
In 1963 his findings on Lingnan Garden were published in a second article in Jianzhu Xuebao. At the core of the research were the spatial qualities and the sequence of alternating architectural features such as courtyards, architectural and landscape elements, a space-time concept found in modernist thought as in Le Corbusier’s “Promenade Architectural” or Siegfried Giedeon’s “Flowing Space.” In the first half of the 1960s, the consequences of the Great Leap Forward had caused a rigid austerity program, and subject matters of exclusively architectural questions with no relevance for the re-construction of economy or general welfare were commonly considered rightist, while the study of vernacular architecture and the use of local building methods and material had been promoted by the officials. 

In order to expand his own professional practice beyond the strict framework of spatial production driven by almost exclusively economic constraints, Hsia Changshi developed a number of techniques utilizing economic, vernacular, and rational elements, climatic matters, and the study of spatial qualities in garden architecture to create a distinct regional adaptive architecture. The use of modernist principles such as functionality, “sincerity” of material and structure can be seen as passive resistance encouraging the growth of an architectural thinking that was unconventional and controversial at that time and place.
(CL)


Sources: 
Hsia, Changshi (1958): “Problems of Lowering the Temperature of Buildings in the Subtropical Zone.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao Issue 10/1958. 36-39
Hsia, Changshi/ Mo, Bozhi (1963): “Lingnan Gardens.” In: Jianzhu Xuebao, Issue 03/1963. 11-14
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2007. 36-41
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.
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			'text' => 'Jianzhu Xuebao is a Chinese architecture magazine and is associated with the Architectural Society of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the magazine was founded in 1954 and became the official channel for debates on architecture and urban planning. Articles ranged from politically motivated statements, propagation, calls, the reprint of important speeches, to the analysis of building typologies, examples of recently built infrastructure and facilities, but also model projects that were of particular interest for the construction of the new socialist state. The magazine discussed questions of planning and community building and was also partly used for dissemination of guidelines and rules. “With branches set up in major cities all over the country, it became the primary organization for both architectural academics and professionals to present work and express opinions beyond the territory bounded by their work units and city regions.  Moreover, the double role of many of its members, who were often professors and practitioners involved in both architecture and planning at the same time, had also led to a fact that conferences organized by the society and issues of its key journal became the primary platform where almost all major debates and thoughts were presented before other related periodicals started to appear in the late 1970s. This is also the reason that a great number of materials to be reviewed and analyzed were from this journal.” (Zhao 2007:127)

Whereas during the first Five-Year-Plan the focus was clearly on industrial structures and social facilities, after the failure of the Great Leap Forward in 1960, the lack of resources induced a shift in the magazine’s attention towards the study of vernacular dwellings of ethnic minorities for the first time. At the same time, almost every issue from 1962 onwards held examples of regionalist adaptations of architecture in other third world countries. While the West looked at the ancient building traditions, the magazine’s depictions focused on modern developments in these nations.

Duanfang Lu claims that these “discursive parameters, the architectural practices of other developing countries were linked with those of China, creating a world of synchronic temporality and shared spatiality.” (Lu 2010:23)(CL)

Sources: 
Jianzhu Xuebao year 1958-64
Lu, Duanfang (2010): Third World Modernism. Architecture, Development and Identity. Routledge: London.
Zhao, Chunlan (2007): Socio/Spatial transformation in Mao’s China. Settlement Planning and Dwelling Architecture Revisited (1950s-1970s). PhD Thesis: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

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			'text' => 'Hsia Changshi (1905) was born in Guangzhou, China. At the age of 17 he went to Germany with his brother where he learned German and later started to study biology at the University of Tuebingen. After seeing an architecture student at his drawing board while visiting his brother, he decided to change his studies and enrolled in architecture at the university of Karlsruhe. His main sources of influence at the school were Professors Herman Billing, Karl Wulzinger, and Karl Caesar. Wulzinger, an art historian, was a specialist in archeology of Oriental and Middle Eastern art and architecture, believing that “historic knowledge and creative thinking must be so tight, that the awareness from the area of knowledge is adopted in the area of proficiency.” (Kögel, 2010:16ff) In 1928 he finished his thesis under Hermann Billing and during the following summer he briefly worked at Le Corbusier’s office in Paris. In 1932 he defended his doctoral thesis on Gothic churches in Tuebingen. 
The same year he left Germany with his German wife to work in Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and finally in Guangzhou from 1945. For some time he accompanied German architect and art-historian Ernst Boerschmann on a trip exploring ancient Chinese architecture. While in Nanjing he worked for a railway company, a job that required him to travel a great deal. He was sent to Yunnan province where he was exposed to rural provincial China, to both its poverty and its variety of vernacular architecture.

In Guangzhou he combined practicing architecture at his own firm with teaching at the South China University of Technology. There he co-founded the Institute of Subtropical Architecture with fellow professors and architects, including Chen Boqi, who also was educated in Germany. They developed a concept of climate-responsive architecture by studying the local architecture, so-called Lingnan Architecture.
Among the main buildings are the Pavilion for Aquatic products 1951, N02 Building at SCUT 1954, and a sanatorium at Dinghu Mountain.
During the Cultural Revolution Hsia was denunciated. He was first sent to the countryside for re-education and later imprisoned for four years. His son, who was studying in Germany at that time, was able to raise awareness among German diplomats about his parents’ imprisonment, and after intervention by a minister during the opening of the German embassy in Beijing, Hsia and his wife were released and left China.
As a result of his apartment being looted during his imprisonment, there is almost no archival material left. A request for rehabilitation in a letter never got a reply. Hsia died in 1996. However, in 2008 at the Shenzhen Biennale a retrospective provided insight into his work. (CL)

Sources: 
Kögel, Eduard (2010): “Between Reform and Modernism. Hsia Changshi and Germany.” In: Nanfang Jianzhu, Issue 02/2010.16-29
Peng, Changxin (2007): “Regionalism and Realism: Hsia Changshi’s Ideas on Modern Architecture in China.” In: South Architecure, Issue 02/2010. 36-41.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Professor Feng Jiang. South China University of Technology. 09/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Professor He Jintang. South China University of Technology. 10/10/2011.
Linortner, Christina (2011): Interview with Gang Song at South China University of Technology. 03/10/201.



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			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 3 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 4 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 5 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		)
	)
)
$subInset = '<div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div>'
$topPageThreads = array(
	(int) 0 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '26',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '55',
			'rght' => '64',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Info',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 1 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '27',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '65',
			'rght' => '78',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Archive',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:28',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 15:34:27'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 2 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '28',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '79',
			'rght' => '92',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 3 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '39',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '93',
			'rght' => '96',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 4 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '31',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '97',
			'rght' => '112',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Blog',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
			'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 5 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '32',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '113',
			'rght' => '114',
			'hidden' => '1',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '4',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Logbook',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:28:10',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
		'children' => array()
	)
)
$mapThreadId = (int) 39
$thesesThreadId = (int) 28
$pageThread = array(
	'Thread' => array(
		'id' => '31',
		'parent_id' => '7',
		'lft' => '97',
		'rght' => '112',
		'hidden' => '0',
		'user_id' => '1',
		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '5',
		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
		'title' => 'Blog',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
		'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
	),
	'children' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 1 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	)
)
$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_31"><div>Blog</div></div>'
$act = null
$aclass = 'nav-page'
in_array - [internal], line ??
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107