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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
			'lead' => 'British architects and authors of “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone“',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
			'lead' => 'British architects and authors of “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone“',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
			'lead' => 'British architects and authors of “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone“',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
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			'text' => 'The term “tropical architecture” is often associated with Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew and their publications “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone” and “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones.” According to Lefaivre/Tzonis, tropical architecture is the expression of a particular kind of people (as is film, art, and music), rather than merely a matter of ventilation and sun shading distinguishing itself from Tropicalism. (Lefaivre/Tzonis 2001:14)
The term becomes relevant in the early 1950s and is followed by discussions on regional, sustainable, and climate-adaptive architecture and can be seen as a bond between colonial planning and modern architecture. 
The governability of the population during colonial rule was aimed primarily at the body, whereas discourses on sanitation and hygiene were explicitly part of colonial settlement planning. An essential role of town planning concepts was to control the spread of diseases. The separation of European reservations with a non-residential area called a building free zone was promoted by these medical discourses. Frederick Lugard, a British colonial administrator in the early 20th century, proposed a width of 440 yards: “Although the flying range of a mosquito was probably not known, Lugard wrote of the need for the zone to be wide enough not to offer ‘resting-places for mosquitoes’.”(Home 1997: 147/148)The “green belt” (or zone sanitaire) was implemented as an integral part of colonial planning in order to assure the division between the urban and the rural, avoiding the transfer of diseases between these parts: “All the entrances to every town should be through a park, that is to say a belt of park of about a mile or two in diameter should entirely surround every town (...) This would greatly contribute to the health and pleasure of the inhabitants; it would render the surrounding properties beautiful and give a magnificent appearance to a town, from whatever quarter viewed.”  (Home 1997: 17)
During British colonial rule, Fry and Drew built in Ghana and Nigeria. Otto Königsberger worked in India from 1939 to 1951. Königsberger was chief architect in Mysore and later responsible for the design of the dwellings for refugees coming to India after the partition from Pakistan. In 1946 he designed pre-fabricated houses, and Minnette de Silva worked for him in Bangalore. 
From 1951 onwards, Fry and Drew continued their work and became part of the planning committee in Chandigarh. Besides architects who had worked under colonial rule before, more and more European architects linked to CIAM were involved in the former colonial states. Through these experiences the former universalistic claim faced a crisis. 
The main arguments concerning regional construction methods involved shortage of resources, climatic conditions, and financial limitations. In 1953 Gamma Grids on Morrocan bidonvilles and low-cost-housing in Chandigarh were presented at the CIAM Conference in Aix-en-Provence. According to Susanne Kohte, during the era of decolonization in the 1950s “the European and American architects’ associations were also becoming more international, with members from various continents. New questions were being raised, as can be seen in a 1947 letter from Sert to Giedion: ‘I think, we cannot continue to consider Central Europe as the main field of interest for CIAM.’”
Housing and planning was a major government interest at the time. While the combination of architecture and medicine was a segregation tool in colonial settlement planning, with tropical architecture it was revived as a scientific tool. (MH / CL)

Sources:
Home, Robert (1997): Of Planting and Planning. The making of British colonial cities. London: E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall.
Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In: Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.
Tzonis, Alexander/Lefaivre, Liane/Stagno, Bruno (2001): Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.  



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			'title' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry',
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			'text' => 'Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry were part of the Chandigarh planning team along with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Both of them had built before in Ghana and Nigeria, which officially qualified them as tropical climate architects. Maxwell Fry was one of the founding members of the MARS group (Modern Architecture Research Group). Both were MARS members at CIAM. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry became involved with the Chandigarh project by the end of 1950. P.N. Thapar, administrative head of the Chandigarh project, and P.L. Varma, chief engineer of Punjab, who were responsible for finding new architects to build Chandigarh, noticed them as tropical architecture experts. Both of them were involved in the construction process for three to four years. Two years after having left Chandigarh they published their book  “Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone,” but the book didn’t refer specifically to the experiences in Chandigarh. According to Fry, the book referred to the 1943 exhibition catalogue “Brazil Builds” by Philip L. Goodwin. In 1954 Max Fry and Jane Drew founded the Tropical Architecture degree program together with Otto Koenigsberger at the AA School: “In the degree programme, architecture was developed on the basis of climatic and local conditions. The programme was designed to help architects acquire knowledge, for example, about climatic principles.” (Kothe, 2009) In 1964 Drew and Fry published “Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zone.” In the 1963 article “Architecture in the Tropics,” Jane Drew wrote the following on Chandigarh: “Architecture for the developing peoples; as they are now well called – the millions of India, Africa, and the Middle East who are fast becoming part of the modern world – is a very great problem, particularly since education is acquired more quickly than wealth. An architect, if he wishes to devote part of his life to helping such people, should know the basic requirements of tropical building and the great difference in building for a hot-dry or a hot-wet climate.” (Drew 1963)
Jane Drew was closely connected to Eulie Chowdhury, an architect in the Chandigarh project, while staying in Chandigarh. The Sri Lankan architect Minnette de Silva wrote: “Chandigarh got through its most difficult days with Jane staying on and acting as a ‘medium’ for Corb, Nehru, and the Punjab government. (...) Jane’s early workers’ quarters, the cheapest of their kind in Chandigarh, built around an existing village and mango grove (...) became one of the better housing units which were otherwise the less successful elements in Chandigarh.” (De Silva 1986) (MH)

Sources:
De Silva, Minnette (1986): "Minnette de Silva." In: Flower, Sile/Macfarlane, Jean/Plant, Ruth (Eds.) (1986): Jane B. Drew, architect. A tribute from colleagues and friends for her 75th birthday, 24th March 1986. Bristol: Centre for the Advancement of Architecture. 
Drew, Jane B. (1963): "Indigenous Architecture: Architecture in the Tropics." In: Perspecta, Issue 8. 57-58.Fry, E. 
Maxwell/Drew, Jane (1956): Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, London: Batsford.Fry, E. 
Maxwell / Drew, Jane (1964): Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, New York: Reinhold.Kohte, Susanne (2009): “Tropical Architecture” In:  Archithese, Issue 6/2009. 66-71.',
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Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107