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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
		'title' => 'Website',
		'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
		'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
	),
	'children' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 1 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 3 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 4 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 5 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		)
	)
)
$subInset = ''
$topPageThreads = array(
	(int) 0 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '55',
			'rght' => '64',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Info',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
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	(int) 1 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '65',
			'rght' => '78',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Archive',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:28',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 15:34:27'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 2 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '28',
			'parent_id' => '7',
			'lft' => '79',
			'rght' => '92',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
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				[maximum depth reached]
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		'Thread' => array(
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			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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	(int) 4 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'lft' => '97',
			'rght' => '112',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Blog',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
			'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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				[maximum depth reached]
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			'parent_id' => '7',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '4',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Logbook',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:28:10',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
		'children' => array()
	)
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$mapThreadId = (int) 39
$thesesThreadId = (int) 28
$pageThread = array(
	'Thread' => array(
		'id' => '26',
		'parent_id' => '7',
		'lft' => '55',
		'rght' => '64',
		'hidden' => '0',
		'user_id' => '1',
		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '0',
		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
		'title' => 'Info',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27',
		'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27'
	),
	'children' => array(
		(int) 0 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 1 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 3 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		)
	)
)
$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_26"><div>Info</div></div>'
in_array - [internal], line ??
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
                    $div .= '</div></div>';
                    
                    $act = in_array($pageThread['Thread']['id'], $parent_thread_ids);
$viewFile = '/home/httpd/vhosts/k3000.ch/transculturalmodernism.org/app/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp'
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			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	'asset' => array(
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			'thread_id' => '10',
			'user_id' => '7',
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			'abstract' => 'Constructing the UN exhibition on low cost housing in New Delhi',
			'captions' => 'International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19.  ',
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			'created' => '2012-01-14 12:43:37',
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			'asset_id' => '1039',
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			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'India',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 23:04:53',
			'modified' => '2010-04-10 23:36:40'
		),
		'Location' => array(
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			'parent_id' => null,
			'lft' => null,
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			'location_type_id' => null,
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			'user_id' => null,
			'usergroup_id' => null,
			'created' => null,
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		'Locationtag' => array(
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			'location_id' => null,
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			'title' => null,
			'note' => null,
			'user_id' => null,
			'created' => null,
			'modified' => null
		),
		'AssetsChartSpot' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'LinkedThread' => array(),
		'Keyword' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 2 => array(
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			(int) 3 => array(
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			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 6 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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		),
		'Reference' => array(),
		'Article' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		'ChartSpot' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	)
)
$website_threads = array(
	(int) 0 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '7',
			'parent_id' => '1',
			'lft' => '54',
			'rght' => '115',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '3',
			'thread_type_id' => '4',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Website',
			'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 1 => array(
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				[maximum depth reached]
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			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
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				[maximum depth reached]
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$asset = array(
	'Asset' => array(
		'id' => '1039',
		'assetfile_id' => '1041',
		'thread_id' => '10',
		'user_id' => '7',
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		'abstract' => 'Constructing the UN exhibition on low cost housing in New Delhi',
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		'created' => '2012-01-14 12:43:37',
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		'asset_id' => '1039',
		'user_id' => '7',
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		'usergroup_id' => '0',
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		'asset_repositoty' => '0',
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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
			'lead' => 'a seminar, an exhibition, and a conference',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
	),
	(int) 2 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'lft' => '79',
			'rght' => '92',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 2 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 5 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		)
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	(int) 3 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'lft' => '93',
			'rght' => '96',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:33:57',
			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
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		'children' => array(
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	(int) 4 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
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			'lft' => '97',
			'rght' => '112',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Blog',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:11:40',
			'modified' => '2011-03-07 20:07:28'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
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			),
			(int) 1 => array(
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			'usergroup_id' => '4',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
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			'title' => 'Logbook',
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			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-29 15:28:10',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
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	)
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$mapThreadId = (int) 39
$thesesThreadId = (int) 28
$pageThread = array(
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		'lft' => '79',
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		'user_id' => '1',
		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '0',
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		'title' => 'Theses',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
		'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:38',
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	),
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			'Thread' => array(
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		),
		(int) 1 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		),
		(int) 2 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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		),
		(int) 3 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
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		),
		(int) 4 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
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		(int) 5 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
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			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
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)
$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_28"><div>Theses</div></div>'
$act = null
$aclass = 'nav-page'
in_array - [internal], line ??
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Notice (8): Undefined variable: parent_thread_ids [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
                    $div .= '</div></div>';
                    
                    $act = in_array($pageThread['Thread']['id'], $parent_thread_ids);
$viewFile = '/home/httpd/vhosts/k3000.ch/transculturalmodernism.org/app/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp'
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			'captions' => 'International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19.  ',
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			'title' => 'India',
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			'created' => '2010-04-10 23:04:53',
			'modified' => '2010-04-10 23:36:40'
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		'AssetsChartSpot' => array(
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		'Keyword' => array(
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			(int) 3 => array(
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			(int) 5 => array(
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		),
		'Reference' => array(),
		'Article' => array(
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			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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		),
		'ChartSpot' => array(
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$website_threads = array(
	(int) 0 => array(
		'Thread' => array(
			'id' => '7',
			'parent_id' => '1',
			'lft' => '54',
			'rght' => '115',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '3',
			'thread_type_id' => '4',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Website',
			'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
		),
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$asset = array(
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			'created' => '2011-12-10 13:52:32',
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			'title' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt',
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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
			'lead' => 'a seminar, an exhibition, and a conference',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 4 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			)
		),
		(int) 5 => array(
			'Thread' => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			'children' => array([maximum depth reached])
		)
	)
)
$subInset = '<div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div><div class="nav-page-empty"><div></div></div>'
$topPageThreads = array(
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			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Info',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:19:27'
		),
		'children' => array(
			(int) 0 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 1 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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				[maximum depth reached]
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			'rght' => '78',
			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Archive',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-09-28 18:23:28',
			'modified' => '2010-09-29 15:34:27'
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			(int) 0 => array(
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				[maximum depth reached]
			),
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				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 3 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
			),
			(int) 4 => array(
				[maximum depth reached]
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		'Thread' => array(
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			'lft' => '79',
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			'hidden' => '0',
			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '0',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Theses',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
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			'modified' => '2011-09-18 20:11:23'
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			'thread_type_id' => '0',
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			'title' => 'Charts',
			'abstract' => '',
			'note' => '',
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			'modified' => '2012-03-05 22:11:19'
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			'usergroup_id' => '0',
			'thread_type_id' => '5',
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			'title' => 'Blog',
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			'modified' => '2010-09-29 18:10:01'
		),
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		'rght' => '112',
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		'usergroup_id' => '0',
		'thread_type_id' => '5',
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		'title' => 'Blog',
		'abstract' => '',
		'note' => '',
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			'Thread' => array(
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)
$div = '<div class="nav-page" id="nav_page_31"><div>Blog</div></div>'
$act = null
$aclass = 'nav-page'
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107

Warning (2): in_array() expects parameter 2 to be array, null given [APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60]
Code Context
                    $div .= '</div></div>';
                    
                    $act = in_array($pageThread['Thread']['id'], $parent_thread_ids);
$viewFile = '/home/httpd/vhosts/k3000.ch/transculturalmodernism.org/app/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp'
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			'title' => 'India',
			'abstract' => '',
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			'created' => '2010-04-10 23:04:53',
			'modified' => '2010-04-10 23:36:40'
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		'LinkedThread' => array(),
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		'Reference' => array(),
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$website_threads = array(
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		'Thread' => array(
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			'parent_id' => '1',
			'lft' => '54',
			'rght' => '115',
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			'user_id' => '1',
			'usergroup_id' => '3',
			'thread_type_id' => '4',
			'asset_repositoty' => '0',
			'title' => 'Website',
			'abstract' => 'Threads to store data for the Website…',
			'note' => '',
			'created' => '2010-04-10 22:03:42',
			'modified' => '2010-09-28 18:42:55'
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			'title' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt',
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			'text' => 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-83) was a town planner, editor, and teacher. She was one of the most influential figures in architectural discourses during the modern movement, which constituted itself around CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture Moderne), MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group), and EKISTICS (studies of human settlement coined by Doxiadis). In 1941 she joined the British MARS group, and in 1947 she attended CIAM for the first time. That was probably where she met Giedion and immediately got involved in his life works as a translator, writer, and editor. In 1949 she became assistant director to Maxwell Fry, and from 1951-1964 she was acting secretary of CIAM. Tyrwhitt shaped the MARS group’s mixture of Patrick Geddes’ historical, contextual specific perspective with Bauhaus urbanism and was very involved in the efforts of the MARS group to organize the eighth congress of CIAM, “The heart of the city.” It had been agreed that the theme for the eighth congress would be the establishment of a “Charter of Habitat,” based on the CIAM grid. But the MARS group suggested an alternative: the theme of ‘the CORE’, or civic center. Before the June meeting, Tyrwhitt and Alberto Iriarte, of Sert’s staff, adapted the CIAM grid to analyze the CORE, using London as a model, thereby integrating the two themes (and resolving potential conflict within the organization). Until her death in 1983 she was teaching and giving lectures in universities and participating in committees around the world, e.g. in the USA, India, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Gambia, etc. She began her training in 1923 as a garden designer, were she first studied botany, zoology, and organic chemistry. After she graduated in horticulture, she went to the AA School to be trained as an architect, and from 1936-37 she studied Town Planning at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. Even though she never met Constantions A. Doxiadis before 1954, he studied at the Technische Hochschule at the same time. She worked at the School of Planning in London for seven years. During the last years before she left London in 1951, Tyrwhitt’s involvement in CIAM became far-reaching. After CIAM 8 she co-edited “The Heart of the City,” which was published in 1951. She spent several years in North America, later became the director of the first UN Seminar on housing and community planning held in New Delhi, India as well as the UN advisor to the government of India on an exhibition about low-cost housing. It was at the UN seminar that she met Doxiadis. One year later Doxiadis and Tyrwhitt founded ‘EKISTICS, a project on the study of human settlements,’ which became her main occupation until her death in 1983. (FA + MH)

Sources:
Ekistics the problems and science of Human Settlement (1985): "Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memorian." Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 
Shoshkes, Ellen (2006): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a founding mother of modern urban design.” In: PlanningPerspectives, Issue 21/2. 179-197.
Shoshkes, Ellen. (2009): “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and transnational discourse on modern urban planning and design, 1941–1951.” In: Urban History, Issue 36/2. 262-283.
Shoshkes, Ellen (2010): “Martin Meyerson and Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Global Exchange of Planning Ideas." IN: Journal of Planning History, Issue 9/2. 75-94.
Welter, Volker M. (2003): “Post-War CIAM, Team X, and the Influence of Patrick Geddes.” In: Camp, D’Laine/van den Heuvel, Dirk/de Waal, Gijs (Eds.): CIAM Team 10-the English Context. Delft: Technische Universiteit. 87-110.

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			'title' => 'UN Housing and Planning Conference on Low-cost Housing (New Delhi 1954)',
			'lead' => 'a seminar, an exhibition, and a conference',
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			'text' => 'In 1954 an exhibition on low-cost housing took place in Delhi. As part of this, a four week seminar was set up where most of its participants attended, and during the final week a Regional Conference on Housing and Town Planning took place. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt set up the exhibition as an international event. In the 1950s CIAM delegates got involved in UN housing programs in different ways.Housing, planning, and redevelopment became key words in the process of nation building in India. The interest in objects of indigenous architecture changed from destroying them in colonial times into developing them in the era of decolonization. The United Nations started programs in housing, building, and planning as early as 1949 for “(a) those countries in which a substantial part of the population is living under conditions below recognized standards; (b) war-devastated areas; and (c) countries in which shortages of material or capital are likely to be a limiting factor in the housing program.” (United Nations 1955: 3) 

Studying and evaluating rural housing, construction methods, and materials at the conference and exhibition has to be analyzed as part of the development regime, which emerged during decolonization. In 1952 the Indian Government and the United Nations were planning an international exhibition on low-cost housing. In 1951 a United Nations sponsored mission called Experts on Tropical Housing visited South and South East Asia. The Indian Government proposed that the exhibition “was intended to provide information on improved methods of utilizing local materials for construction purposes; to demonstrate modern building tools and machinery adaptable to the building industry of the region; and to illustrate the economic and social aspects of the housing problem.” (United Nations 1955) Furthermore, the suggestion was made to collaborate with other organizations. (1) In 1952 the Indian Government and the UN scheduled the exhibition for early 1954 in Delhi. The administrative work was in the hands of the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Supply, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. The program was to provide three themes: urban land policy, housing and community improvement programs, and construction methods and building materials. In May 1953 the Indian Government sent out the invitation for the exhibition to governments all over the world (2). In the prospectus and guide, “which accompanied the invitation, it was stated that trends in solving the Asian housing problem point to a greater use of indigenous materials, economy in design, and due regard to factors of environmental sanitation.” (United Nations 1955: 17)  

Minnette de Silva, at that time a delegate from the Marg Group for India and Ceylon at the CIAM conferences, mentioned that the Marg Group was not invited to the seminar: “The forthcoming UNESCO exhibition on low-cost housing in the tropics is to be held in Delhi in January-February next. Many organizations have been invited to take part, but not MARG. If MARG had been more active this could not have happened. The organizers do not realize that the conference could be given prominence in the magazine – it is the one thing that the group does do (rather haphazardly) – it scrutinizes and advises on the architectural magazines.” (de Silva 1998: 254) The planning for the exhibition took several months; it was to be  accompanied by lectures, films, and documentaries to provide knowledge on how to use local building materials and skills. The United Nations appointed Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (at that time visiting professor for Town Planning at the University of Toronto) as the project director. In 1953, before leaving for India for the preparatory discussions, she spent one month at the UN headquarters in New York for intense preparation for the exhibition. A wide range of guests had been invited: “First Weissman from New York, then Ecochard from Pakistan, Sharon from Israel, Pineau from Vietnam, Charlie Abrams from New York, to say nothing of ex-students of the School of Planning from all round India: Desai and Godbole from Bombay, Naidu from Bangalore, Gupta from Jaipur and Pakinkar from Calcutta.” (Ekistics 1985: 489)  Minnette de Silva proposed “to arrange a Regional CIAM meeting at the same time since there will be a few CIAM members in the region of Delhi at the time.”(de Silva 1998: 254) 

The CIAM, by name Giedion and Le Corbusier, showed less interest in the conference. This was demonstrated by sending Tyrwhitt, Ecochard, Drew, and Fry as delegates, when the Indian government wanted Le Corbusier to participate, as he was chief architect of Chandigarh upon which construction had just started 3 years before. 

The concept of the exhibition was the village as an expression of a living environment: “The revival of village life in India in its fullness is based primarily upon the restoration of responsibility to the village panchayat – a restoration of the self-reliance and pride that made the Indian village of earlier times the real home of thought and culture in India. The new policy of rural housing must therefore be, and is, closely tied up with the political and economic development of village.” (Ekistics 1985: 431) In a reference to Gandhi, the village as an Indian mission to the world should be saved from exploitation: “...there would be no objection to villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they can make and can afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.” (Ekistics 1985: 432) The exhibition opened on January 20, 1954. The Minister of Works, Housing, and Supply saw the exhibition as a more effective and vivid transportation of knowledge than literature for the questions and problems they had to deal with in realizing a large-scale low-cost housing program in India. (United Nations 1955: 19) The 70 rural and urban housing demonstrations of low-income groups where based on Mahura Road, which connects New and Old Delhi. In addition to the model houses, the exhibition included a village center based on the CIAM concept of ‘the core,’ (Ekistics 1985: 430) displays of building materials, plans, and models, commercial exhibition stands, an open-air theater, and an amusement park. The costs of the constructed model houses were limited to INR 5,000 for an example for urban life and INR 3,000 for rural. The cost had to be paid by the contractors of the model houses, who where mainly state and central governments, but also municipal agencies, research and development organizations, and commercial representatives. 

The discussion papers tried to emphasize the importance of shifting from low-cost housing as a technical problem to a human and social necessity. The 1954 census showed that 295 thousand of the 356 thousand people in India lived in villages. The exhibition was set up as life in a village; the village center included a replica of Mahatma Ghandi’s hut in Wardha. The focus of the exhibition was to demonstrate local and regional building materials, techniques, and forms, and to demonstrate how important a regional approach seemed in providing better housing. The exhibition was to be a source of experience and knowledge about different climate zones or different production methods of bricks for the public, for example. The UN report states that 30,000 people visited the exhibition daily. 

A regional conference in South East Asia organized by the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning (IFHTP) was held in Delhi during the exhibition. 132 participants attended the seminar, including high government officials and technical experts from Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Furthermore, the UN sent participants from Afghanistan, Australia, France, Greece, India, Israel, the Netherlands, Puerto Rico, the UK, the USA, and Yugoslavia. The seminar was scheduled for four weeks, while the fourth week was part of the South East Asia regional conference. The seminar attempted to communicate to the governments the importance of the awareness of social needs in the housing sector and to connect the participating countries under the term South East Asia by communicating climatic similarities. The main approach was focusing on regional needs and introducing regional building materials and techniques. The South East Asia Regional Conference, visited by 200 delegates, focused on how the countries of the so-called South East Asian region could help and connect with each other. Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry participated in the seminar as representatives from CIAM and held a presentation on low-cost housing in Chandigarh. Drew and Fry presented the cheapest housing in Chandigarh designed for ‘peons’(3) and others with an monthly income less than INR 50. Together with the future inhabitants they discussed a dwelling which included: “Two separate living rooms; verandah; kitchen – enclosed if possible; wash place; W.C. (Private if possible); walled compound.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109)  It was to be made of brick walls and brick or concrete tile, with a baton roof insulated with mud. The discussion process “transformed what has so often been a technical problem into a human and personal one.” (Tyrwhitt 1954: 109) There was also a one-day excursion to the construction site in Chandigarh on February 6th. 

MH



(1) ECAFE, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  

(2) “It was indicated that the seminar would provide an opportunity for government officials and others (a) to exchange information and points of view on the objectives, techniques, and legislation relating to housing and planning; and (b) to participate in discussions and attend lectures given by international authorities in these fields.” International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building, and planning no. United nations. Sales no. 1955. IV. 19. Pp.17  

(3) Office helpers  



Sources:

De Silva, Minnette (1998): The life & work of an Asian woman architect. Colombo: Smart Media Productions.

Ekistics: The problems and science of HUMAN SETTLEMENT. (1985): Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt in Memoriam. Issue 52/314-315. 396-558. 

United Nations (1955): International action in Asia and the Far East. Housing, building and planning. No. 1955/IV/19.  

Tyrwhitt, Jaqueline (1954): Report on the seminar on Housing and Community Planning (for the UN). Delhi.



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$aclass = 'nav-page'
in_array - [internal], line ??
include - APP/View/Elements/website/topnavigation.ctp, line 60
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::_renderElement() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 1224
View::element() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 418
include - APP/View/Website/asset.ctp, line 4
View::_evaluate() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 971
View::_render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 933
View::render() - CORE/Cake/View/View.php, line 473
Controller::render() - CORE/Cake/Controller/Controller.php, line 968
Dispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 200
Dispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/Cake/Routing/Dispatcher.php, line 167
[main] - APP/webroot/index.php, line 107